Early Confrontations and Soviet Aid (1949-1953)
October 1949. The Third Chinese Civil War, which began in 1946, concluded with the victory of Mao Zedong’s forces over Chiang Kai-shek’s Kuomintang. The KMT, expelled from the mainland to Taiwan and smaller islands, naturally sought revenge. In this situation, a landing operation on the continent was pure fantasy, and the most realistic option for the KMT was to use air and naval forces to target accessible objectives: coastal cities and regions of the PRC, as well as its civilian and fishing vessels.
By that time, Taiwan possessed 86 combat aircraft and 118 transport aircraft, with some machines also based on other islands. Their arsenal included P-38 “Lightning” fighters (in their reconnaissance variant), P-40s, Republic F-47 “Thunderbolts,” and North American F-51 “Mustangs.” Bomber aviation was represented mainly by four-engine Consolidated B-24 “Liberators,” as well as twin-engine North American B-25 “Mitchells” and B-26s.
The communists also had combat aircraft (a total of 113), some captured during the civil war (including the same F-47s, F-51s, B-25s), and the rest transferred by the Soviet Army from Japanese trophies. However, most of them were in unsatisfactory technical condition, and there was a severe shortage of skilled crews. Thus, the People’s Republic of China Air Force (PLAAF) had extremely low combat capability and, at this stage, could not mount a worthy resistance. The same could be said for their anti-aircraft artillery.
The KMT initially chose Shanghai, China’s largest port, and its surroundings as their target. Their aircraft began making periodic raids: at night, “Liberators” operated from Taiwan, while during the day, fighters and twin-engine bombers flew from the islands of the nearby Zhoushan archipelago, which was then still in nationalist hands. Unable to offer adequate resistance, the PRC government turned to the USSR for help. Stalin decided to grant Mao Zedong’s request.
Soviet units were dispatched to China: the 52nd Anti-Aircraft Artillery Division (commander – Colonel S. Spiridonov), an anti-aircraft searchlight regiment, and a radio-technical battalion from the Moscow region. From there, the 29th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment (commander – Hero of the Soviet Union – Lieutenant Colonel Pashkevich), armed with forty-five MiG-15s, also arrived by rail. The 351st Fighter Aviation Regiment, flying La-11s under the command of Hero of the Soviet Union V. Makarov and also having 45 aircraft, flew in from the Liaodong Peninsula. These units, together with three Chinese medium-caliber anti-aircraft artillery regiments and one small-caliber regiment, formed the Shanghai Air Defense Group, commanded by Lieutenant General P. F. Batitsky. In addition, a mixed bomber regiment led by Colonel Semenov, comprising thirty Tu-2s and an equal number of Il-10s, was moved near Shanghai.
The arrival of units began in February 1950, and by the end of March, the group was ready for combat. It should also be added that the airspace over Shanghai was closed to PLAAF aircraft as well. Combat operations began in April. The first victories were achieved that same month when pilots P. Dushin and V. Sidorov, flying their “Lavochkins,” each shot down a KMT B-26 over Xuzhou airfield, where MiG aircraft arriving from the Soviet Union were being assembled. In one sortie, pilot N. Gushev from the same regiment shot down two “Mustangs.”
The 29th Regiment opened its combat account on the night of May 11, when two “Liberators,” flying from Taiwan at ten-minute intervals, attempted a night raid. Pilot I. Shinkarenko shot down one aircraft, despite interference from Chinese anti-aircraft fire. The crew of the second bomber, seeing the unfortunate fate of their leader, turned their aircraft back. A little later, the regiment’s deputy commander, Major Keleinikov, shot down a KMT “Lightning” over the sea. After the Zhoushan archipelago was liberated, this aircraft was found on one of the islands, having crashed a few hundred meters short of the landing strip. Additionally, during heavy cloud cover, a Chinese Tu-2 violated the restricted zone and was shot down by a pair of pilots, Orlov and Bogatyrev. The PLAAF command acknowledged its fault, and there were no disciplinary actions in the Soviet regiment. Near Shanghai, the unit lost one aircraft in a flight accident, in which pilot Proskuryakov died.
A training center for Chinese specialists was established in China, based on this group, and operated until November 1953. Soviet pilots and anti-aircraft gunners remained near Shanghai until October 1950. During this time (evidently from incomplete data), three KMT Air Force aircraft were shot down, four were damaged, and two defected to the communists. After this, KMT activity in the Shanghai area virtually ceased. However, overall activity did not decrease, instead being directed against other coastal provinces. Taiwan was supported by the USA, and it must be said that American activity was more significant: they violated PRC airspace 8,220 times; 199 bombings were carried out, and strafing occurred in 116 cases. US transport aviation was used to transport parachute agents into PRC territory, delivering several hundred people between 1951 and 1954. However, the Chinese leadership was unable to react to these actions properly, as China was still involved in the Korean War until mid-1953.
Air Warfare, New Technologies, and Geopolitical Tensions (1954-1965)
It is known that the so-called “Chinese People’s Volunteers,” including PLAAF elements, took a very active part in the Korean War. But even during the period described, not all violators went unpunished. For example, in January 1953, off Namoa Island, anti-aircraft gunners shot down an American “Neptune” reconnaissance aircraft. Five American and British aircraft were sent to search for and rescue the crew. During this operation, a US Navy “Mariner” flying boat crashed. Out of twenty-one people from both aircraft, only ten were rescued.
At the end of the Korean War, the situation changed dramatically: the Chinese released significant forces, which also had combat experience. It was decided to deploy them to Fujian province, separated from Taiwan by the eponymous strait, as well as to other adjacent provinces. From these troops, the Fujian Front was formed, tasked with defending the PRC’s territory and coastal waters from Chiang Kai-shek’s armed forces. Moreover, Mao Zedong did not abandon plans for an amphibious operation on Taiwan.
It must be said that by that time, the PLAAF’s aircraft fleet had sharply increased, exceeding one and a half thousand machines. The core of the fighter aviation consisted of MiG-15s. From the USSR, deliveries of the then-new MiG-17s began. In addition to jet aircraft, units also had piston-engine Yak-9s and La-11s. Bomber aviation, equipped with Pe-2s and Tu-2s, began receiving jet Il-28s. Attack aviation units had Il-10s. On the other side of the Taiwan Strait, they also did not waste time, intensely building up their air forces. By early 1954, the KMT had about four hundred combat aircraft, mainly piston-engine. Fighter units were armed with “Thunderbolts” and “Mustangs,” bomber units with “Mitchells” and a small number of “Liberators.” Reconnaissance units were mainly equipped with RF-51 aircraft, soon supplemented by jet RT-33s. Units armed with “Thunderbolts” began re-equipping with F-84 “Thunderjets.” There were also small numbers of other types of aircraft: “Fortress,” “Lightning,” “Privateer,” “Catalina,” etc. In addition, an operational group of the US 13th Air Force was based on the island.
So, let’s touch upon some events of 1954. From the beginning of the year, violations of the country’s airspace continued. Nationalist aviation was particularly active over Zhejiang province. On February 1 and 9, PRC air defense shot down one “Thunderbolt” each day. One aircraft fell into the sea near the settlement of Yuwan, and the other onto land. On March 18, over the same province, air defense units shot down another Taiwanese fighter and damaged another. Closer to summer, KMT activity over Zhejiang sharply increased, leading to an increase in their losses: from May 11 to July 5, anti-aircraft gunners and the PLAAF shot down ten and damaged four enemy fighters there. On June 14, a “Thunderbolt” was shot down, falling into the sea between Dacheng and Xiucheng islands. Another two such aircraft were shot down and two damaged in a major aerial battle that occurred on July 6 over Zhejiang province. In addition, the anti-aircraft gunners of Amoy Island managed to achieve a victory over a reconnaissance “Lightning.” Chinese reports mentioned one of the PLAAF air units that, over three summer months, shot down eleven and damaged five KMT aircraft over the province. As an example, one of the battles was cited when a pair consisting of pilots Qu Wei and Jiang Kai flew to intercept four F-47s and two B-25s that were bombing fishermen. In the skirmish, both pilots achieved one victory each.
From September, Taiwan’s aviation operations focused on areas of East China, particularly on Amoy Island, lying off the coast of Fujian province. Here is a brief chronicle of those days. On September 4, several flights of “Thunderbolts” raided targets on the island. One fighter was shot down by anti-aircraft fire, and another was damaged. On September 7, forty-two aircraft of types F-47, B-25, and PB4Y struck Amoy city and other settlements on the island. Anti-aircraft gunners managed to shoot down three and damage twenty enemy aircraft. September 8 saw the largest raid. Initially, the island was bombed by thirty-two PB4Y and B-25s, and later, 72 “Thunderbolts” arrived to replace them. On that day, anti-aircraft guns shot down four and damaged two enemy aircraft. On September 10, over Amoy, anti-aircraft artillery shot down one PB4Y and one F-47. On September 11, it destroyed one and damaged three “Thunderbolts.” On September 23, for the same reason, the KMT Air Force lost three aircraft over the island, and six were damaged.
In total, from September 1 to October 10, 1,270 enemy aircraft overflights were recorded over the coastal areas of Fujian province. During this time, 900 aerial bombs of various calibers were dropped, forty-eight unguided rockets were fired, and over two hundred shots were fired from onboard weapons. Thirty-two people were killed, and one hundred thirty-one were wounded. Ninety-four buildings were destroyed, and eight were damaged. Thirty-five fishing and passenger vessels were sunk, and ten were damaged. In repelling these raids, ground fire and the PLAAF shot down and damaged sixty-two Taiwanese Air Force aircraft. And for almost a year, from January 1 to December 20, 1954, air defense and the PLAAF shot down thirty-nine KMT aircraft over East China, and damaged ninety-two. One pilot from Taiwan defected to the PRC. Unfortunately, the state of confrontation led to a tragedy which the press of those years dubbed the “Hainan Incident.”
On July 23, a pair of Chinese fighters, presumably La-9s or La-11s, shot down a Cathay Pacific Airways passenger Douglas DC-4 from Hong Kong, flying the Singapore-Hong Kong route, in the area of Hainan Island, off the country’s southeastern coast. The “Douglas” was flying somewhat east of the international corridor and was attacked approximately 130 kilometers south of the island. Eight people survived and were rescued by an American “Albatross” flying boat. It should be noted that the airliner was in neutral airspace, the airline’s name was clearly marked on both sides of the fuselage, and the “Union Jack” (flag of Great Britain) was on the tail. The British protested.
A few days later, on July 26, the Americans stated that in the same area, a pair of patrolling American “Skyraiders” were attacked by two Chinese “Lavochkins.” This time, the Chinese were unlucky: both their aircraft were shot down (although according to other data, the Americans attacked two Polish ships, “Braterstwo” and “Pokój,” heading to a PRC port that day in the island area, and the Chinese pair flew to their rescue).
Towards Normalization: Challenges and Outcomes (1960s-1970s)
In 1955, both sides continued to build up their forces. According to Western estimates, by the end of that year, the PLAAF numbered up to two thousand combat aircraft of various types. There was an active saturation with new equipment: MiG-15s, MiG-17s, Il-28s, Tu-4s. Naval aviation was also getting on its feet. In Taiwan, the number of aircraft by the beginning of the year was 450 units. The first of two hundred F-86 “Sabre” fighters ordered from the USA began to arrive. The year began with a major PLAAF amphibious operation on the islands of Dacheng, Yushan, Pishan, Yijiangshan, Nanceiishán, and others, which were outposts of KMT troops off the PRC coast in the Taiwan Strait. During the operation, the PLAAF used all types of aviation: fighter, bomber, attack. As a result, after battles in January-February, the islands were taken, 4,600 enemy soldiers were annihilated, 160 aircraft were shot down and damaged, and 20 ships were sunk and damaged (five of them by aviation).
Here are a few episodes from those days. A flight of four “Thunderbolts” attacked two PRC warships. A pair of fighters flew to their aid and shot down one of the F-47s. On January 9, a trio of Chinese Il-10s sank a KMT warship during a raid on Dacheng. The Americans did not leave their allies in Taiwan alone. Forces of the US 7th Fleet, including seven aircraft carriers, were introduced into the strait, and numerous air units arrived on the island, including squadrons of the 58th and 67th Fighter-Bomber Wings, armed with F-86H “Sabre” aircraft. The Americans also made their presence felt in other places. On May 10, eight US Air Force F-86 fighters, taking off from an airfield in South Korea, intruded into Chinese airspace in the area of Andong city (where Soviet aviation was based during the Korean War). PLAAF aircraft intercepted the intruders 5 km west of Dapu Island. A battle ensued; one “Sabre” was shot down, two were damaged. The remaining aircraft turned back. In July, four Taiwanese F-84s appeared over Zhejiang province. A quartet of Chinese “MiGs” intercepted them and shot down two intruders. In May 1955, Soviet troops were withdrawn from Port Arthur base, and all its facilities, including airfields, were transferred to the PRC government. In the same month, four pilots captured during the Korean War, including the famous ace Harold Fischer, were returned to the Americans. In return, the USA allowed several Chinese-born nuclear scientists, living and educated in America, to travel to the PRC.
1956. The sides continued to improve their military aviation. In July, the first MiG-17, built by the Chinese aviation industry under Soviet license, took flight. In Taiwan, rearmament with jet technology was practically completed. Here are some events of the year. On January 27, a flight of four KMT jet aircraft appeared over Fujian province. Two of them were shot down by anti-aircraft fire, and two were damaged. On January 31, a group of “Sabres” again appeared over Fujian. In an aerial battle, one of them was damaged and made an emergency landing in the British colony of Hong Kong. After repairs, the aircraft and pilot were released to Taiwan. The Chinese protested to the British. On May 24, over Swatow (Shantou) city, PLAAF anti-aircraft gunners shot down an F-84, which fell into the sea.
In July, the first night victory in PLAAF history was achieved. PRC Hero Lu-Min intercepted (via radar guidance) a Taiwanese B-17 and shot it down. It should be noted that Lu-Min was a veteran of the Korean War, with five “Sabres” shot down there to his credit. Two months later, pilot Zhang Wen-yi shot down another KMT aircraft at night in difficult weather conditions. American provocations also continued. During one of them, on August 23, in the area of the Chinese islands of Ma’an, Chengsi, and Huangzeeshan, an aerial battle occurred between PLAAF fighters and American carrier-based aircraft. One of the Americans was shot down and fell into the sea. Chinese losses were not reported. The Shanghai area also did not escape attention—nationalist aircraft repeatedly attempted to penetrate there. These attempts resulted in the loss of eleven aircraft for the Taiwanese, and twenty-six were damaged. According to some Western data, from 1954 to 1956, “eight aerial battles took place over the Taiwan Strait between nationalist and communist air forces.” The results were not mentioned.
1957 was not particularly remarkable. Violations continued from both the nationalist air forces and the USA. The activity of Taiwanese aviation, which occurred in late June – early July in the area of Swatow (Shantou) city, can be noted. On June 20, a flight of four jet aircraft appearing from the Taiwan Strait was fired upon by anti-aircraft artillery. One of the aircraft was shot down and fell into the sea. On June 21, a jet aircraft was hit. On June 22, in the same area, anti-aircraft guns damaged another fighter. On July 3, yet another. The next day, four F-84s again intruded into Chinese airspace and fired upon Swatou, Dongshan, and Xiamen. PLAAF anti-aircraft fire hit one of them. In the same year, a flight of four “MiGs” intercepted a pair of KMT RF-84E reconnaissance aircraft, shooting down one.
1958 holds a special place in China’s history. That was when the so-called “Great Leap Forward” policy began, which negatively impacted the combat readiness of the troops. The army had to divert significant resources to the national economy. In particular, the PLAAF allocated substantial transport aviation forces to support various “great construction projects.” In addition to combat training, military personnel in every unit were required to build small blast furnaces and smelt steel. Gradually, “people’s metallurgy” became almost the army’s primary occupation. Comrade Mao also put forward the initiative “xia-lan dangbing” (“go down to the companies – become soldiers”). In its implementation, officers and generals, including experienced aviation specialists (pilots, aviation engineers, etc.), were sent as “interns” to companies to serve as privates for a month. By the end of the year, 68,656 people had undergone such “internship.”
Due to the subsequent economic collapse, the start of licensed MiG-19 fighter production was effectively derailed. Although the first aircraft took flight in December, its serial production was delayed for many years. In foreign policy, the “leap” resulted in the so-called Taiwan Strait Crisis. In late August, Chinese artillery began shelling the islands of Kinmen and Matsu, occupied by Chiang Kai-shek’s troops. Large air forces from both sides were also involved in the military actions. The USA sent approximately 130 warships, including seven aircraft carriers, marines, and over seven hundred combat aircraft – including one F-104 squadron, two F-100D squadrons, one F-101 squadron, one RF-101 squadron, and one B-57 squadron – to aid the nationalists. The Soviet Union, in turn, supported the actions of the PRC leadership on the international stage. The world found itself on the brink of a new world war. However, common sense prevailed in the actions of the parties, and in late October, the Chinese ceased shelling the islands. The crisis subsided.
Against this political backdrop, the events of this air war unfolded in 1958. In Taiwan, some “Sabres” were armed with AIM-9B “Sidewinder” air-to-air missiles. KMT aviation also received several of the then-newest high-altitude RB-57 reconnaissance aircraft. This was due to the USA’s interest in the progress of nuclear weapons development in the PRC (construction of factories, test sites, etc.). However, conducting aerial reconnaissance with American crews was undesirable for the USA for political reasons. Therefore, an agreement was reached between Taipei and Washington that such work would be performed by KMT pilots in American aircraft bearing nationalist insignia. For the same purposes, the first U-2s arrived from the USA, which began flights over the PRC in December. At the same time, deliveries of supersonic F-100 “Super Sabre” fighters to the Taiwanese Air Force began.
So, regarding some events of 1958. On July 29, a group of PLAAF MiG-17s intercepted four KMT aircraft over Shantou and shot down three of them. On August 14, twelve nationalist “Sabres” were intercepted over Pingtan Island by PLAAF fighters. In the ensuing battle, two F-86s were shot down and one was damaged. Both victories belonged to pilot Zhou Chunfu, who died in this battle. In total, from July 29 to August 14, the PLAAF struck nine enemy aircraft. On August 25, in the area of Weitou, eight Taiwanese aircraft were intercepted by fighters, one of which was shot down and fell into the sea.
The date September 24, 1958, remained in the history of world military aviation. On that day, an aerial battle occurred between a group of approximately thirty MiG-17s and fourteen F-86Fs. For the first time in an aerial battle, air-to-air guided missile weapons were used: six “Sabres” launched AIM-9B “Sidewinder” missiles at the “MiGs.” According to nationalist communiques, four PLAAF fighters were shot down by missiles and six by onboard armament. According to official PRC statements, on that day, one MiG-17 was shot down by KMT aviation missiles. Furthermore, another MiG returned to its airfield with a “Sidewinder” that had hit it but failed to detonate. On October 7, over Lianyungang city, a pair of J-5 (MiG-17) from the PRC Naval Aviation intercepted and shot down a high-altitude RB-57D reconnaissance aircraft. The aircraft crashed into the sea. According to former Soviet military advisors, this victory was achieved with the help of an S-75 SAM system missile. The firing was carried out by a Chinese crew. In mid-1958, the first loss of a U-2 was also noted. Due to an engine malfunction, the reconnaissance aircraft lost altitude and was intercepted by Chinese fighters (earlier, on April 1, an aircraft of this type had successfully completed its mission with impunity). On October 10, over Fujian province, a battle occurred between eight “MiGs” and six “Sabres.” Chinese pilot Du Fengrui, before being hit, managed to shoot down two F-86s. After ejecting, he was shot by a “Sabre” while descending by parachute. However, this fighter also failed to escape punishment—it was shot down by PLAAF anti-aircraft gunners. One of the KMT pilots managed to eject. He survived but was captured. In total, according to the PLAAF command’s statement, 17 enemy aircraft were shot down and 25 damaged in 1958. Nothing was said about their own losses.
1959. In the PRC, the rampage of the Great Leap Forward continued. The serial production of the Tu-16 bomber began. The Chinese assembled the first aircraft of this type from Soviet-made parts. Its first flight took place on September 27. MiG-17 production ceased. New aircraft continued to arrive in Taiwan. In addition to F-100s, the USA supplied new RF-101C reconnaissance aircraft. Compared to the combat-rich year of 1958, 1959 was not marked by special combat intensity. At the beginning of the year, eight “Sabres” intruded into PRC airspace. A group of MiG-17s flew to intercept. In the ensuing battle, one F-86 was shot down and another damaged. One of the “MiGs” also sustained damage. On the night of May 29, Lieutenant Jiang Zhelun shot down a B-17G (!) in difficult weather conditions.
The early 1960s were characterized by the clear failure of the “Great Leap,” the results of which most detrimentally affected the combat readiness of the country’s armed forces, including the Air Force. For example, during 1961, many aircraft remained grounded due to a severe shortage of fuel and spare parts. In 1963, when some improvement was noted, most jet pilots, for the same reason, had a monthly flight time of 8-10 hours. In Taiwan, it was 20 hours. Under these conditions, the PLAAF command put forward a number of slogans for various branches of the armed forces. For the Air Force, it sounded like this: “Train hard on the ground, fly excellently in the air,” meaning the main emphasis was placed on ground training.
In 1961, the PRC signed an agreement with the USSR for the licensed production of the MiG-21F-13 fighter. From December 1963, licensed production of MiG-19 aircraft in “P” and “PM” modifications finally began. It should also be noted that from 1962, China began regularly conducting nuclear weapons tests. At the same time, from 1960, as is known, Soviet-Chinese relations began to deteriorate, also affecting cooperation in the military field. Meanwhile, supersonic F-100s and RF-101s continued to arrive in Taiwan from the USA. Deliveries of the then-newest F-104 “Starfighter” fighters also began. In a number of cases, the Americans were directly engaged in reconnaissance over the PRC. Thus, already in 1954, the US Air Force formed the 1st Radio Research Company, equipped with seven Lockheed RB-69A aircraft – a modification of the “Neptune” naval reconnaissance aircraft. The main task of this unit was to conduct electronic intelligence over the USSR and the PRC by entering the airspace of these countries. A little later, in the US Navy aviation, three “Neptunes” began to be upgraded to RB-69 standards. This work ceased only in the early 1960s, when the vulnerability of these reconnaissance aircraft to the then-new weapon – anti-aircraft missiles – became apparent. But in 1960, “Neptunes” were still operating. Thus, from March to June of that year, six violations of PRC air borders by aircraft of this type were recorded.
Now for a few facts. On February 16, 1960, an aerial battle occurred over Fujian between a flight of four “Sabres” and “MiGs.” The KMT aircraft attacked first, firing “Sidewinder” missiles. This time, the PLAAF fighters evaded the strike, in turn damaging one of the F-86s. In turn, the nationalists stated that in this battle, their pilots shot down at least one MiG-17. On August 2, 1961, an RF-101 reconnaissance aircraft was shot down over East China. Apparently, this was the first instance in aviation history of a supersonic aircraft being destroyed in combat. The Chinese did not specify by what means this success was achieved. On November 6 of the same year, an American P2V “Neptune” was destroyed over Northeast China. On September 9, 1962, “one of the air units” of the PLAAF shot down a U-2. This was the first aircraft of this type lost over China directly from combat action. By this time, over a hundred reconnaissance flights had been performed by such aircraft. In an official protest, the Chinese stated that “since 1958, American aircraft had violated PRC airspace 213 times.” In November 1963, the Chinese Air Force shot down another aircraft of this type. A certain number of MiG-19s were supplied from the USSR to China. It is presumed that the RF-101 and U-2 were victims of these aircraft.
1964. The military-political situation drastically complicated due to the beginning of American bombings of North Vietnam. This increased tension in the Chinese-Vietnamese border area due to a sharply increased number of violations of PRC airspace by American aircraft; by the end of this year, there were already over four hundred. In addition, Ryan BQM-34A unmanned reconnaissance aircraft, launched from DC-130A aircraft, began to appear in Chinese airspace. Although the “Great Helmsman” had dismissed the USA as “paper tigers,” he preferred to conduct the fight against intruders also “on paper,” through “the most severe warnings,” which became proverbial in the USSR in those years. In total, there were over nine hundred of these warnings by the end of the year. In the same year, locally produced MiG-19 fighters began to enter Chinese air units. As for the combat work of the Chinese Air Force in 1964, in July another U-2 that had flown from Taiwan was shot down, and naval aviation MiG-19s shot down another RF-101.
1965. The Soviet leadership offered the Chinese joint assistance to the Democratic Republic of Vietnam in repelling American raids. In particular, it was planned to deploy Soviet fighters in Yunnan province, along the border with North Vietnam. This proposal was supported by PLAAF Commander Liu Yalou and Chief of Staff Zhang Xuesi, but Mao Zedong rejected it, and this stance backfired on the military leaders. In May of the same year, Liu Yalou was removed from his post, and during the “Cultural Revolution” years, he was subjected to repression. His place was taken by former PLAAF Political Commissar Wu Faxian. This essentially meant an increased control of the CPC Central Committee over this branch of the armed forces in anticipation of future events. In 1967, Zhang Xuesi was also repressed.
Meanwhile, American aircraft continued to intrude into the country’s airspace. Reconnaissance flights from Taiwan also did not cease. Therefore, this year was characterized by quite intense combat work for the Chinese. The PRC aviation industry produced a prototype of the licensed MiG-21. Additionally, the new Chinese Q-5 fighter-bomber made its first flight. Taiwan received the first Northrop F-5A “Freedom Fighter” fighters. The combat score for this year was opened by fighters in January with the destruction of another U-2. On April 9, eight US Navy F-4B fighters intruded in two groups into PRC airspace in the Haimian Island area. A battle ensued between them and Chinese MiG-17 interceptors. The Americans fired air-to-air missiles, which the “MiGs” managed to evade. A “Phantom” was shot down by its own missile. One of the “Chinese” was damaged by cannon fire. On August 22, Chinese fighters destroyed a US Air Force unmanned reconnaissance aircraft (at least the ninth already). On September 20, “MiGs” shot down an American F-104C fighter that had entered the country’s airspace after striking targets in North Vietnam. On November 28, the PLAAF’s anti-aircraft missile forces spoke for the first time. Missiles from one of the S-75 complexes “took down” the second U-2 of the year. In 1965, “Voodoo” reconnaissance aircraft also suffered new losses: one of them became prey to a J-6 (MiG-19). The total number of RF-101s shot down over the PRC reached (according to Chinese statements) five.
In 1966, the PRC plunged into the darkness of the “Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution,” which lasted until 1969. It disorganized all life in the country, bringing the economy to the brink of complete collapse. The army, drawn into political struggle, largely lost its combat capability. The main criteria for combat readiness were loyalty to Mao Zedong’s ideas and knowledge of his main quotations. However, the PLAAF managed to stay out of it for quite a long time, but then they too were drawn into this maelstrom. In the last year of the “Cultural Revolution,” the deterioration of Soviet-Chinese relations led to armed clashes on the border between the two countries. The aviation industry continued the production of the MiG-19. In January 1966, the licensed MiG-21 made its first flight. From the following year, these machines began to enter units in small numbers. From April 1967, “pirated,” i.e., unlicensed, production of Il-28 bombers began in the PRC. In December 1968, after ten years of hard work, the first Tu-16 was released. But all this equipment could hardly be called modern, even for those times.
By the late 1960s – early 1970s, Taiwanese U-2 flights over PRC territory ceased. American violations, however, continued, both by manned aircraft and unmanned aerial vehicles. In the use of the latter, however, a new element appeared – they were used in conjunction with U-2R reconnaissance aircraft, which in this case did not violate China’s air borders. Two such U-2s, belonging to the CIA, were transferred to Taiwan in 1970, where they engaged in radio-technical reconnaissance. Information was transmitted from the UAVs in real-time over a range of 645 km, which could be significantly increased through relay. The application of American Lockheed SR-71 type aircraft became a new word in aerial reconnaissance. They appeared in the Far East in 1967 and operated from Kadena Air Base, located on the Japanese island of Okinawa. They flew over China with impunity, as they were invulnerable to the country’s air defense systems. Foreign sources also suggest that a predecessor of the SR-71 – the Lockheed A-12 – was used there earlier for similar purposes.
However, the global situation was changing, and Mao Zedong made efforts to establish relations with America. Gradually, American flights over the PRC ceased, and reports of “the most severe warnings” appeared less and less frequently in the press, until they disappeared altogether. In December 1971, three Americans, two of whom were pilots, serving prison sentences in China, were returned to the USA. In 1972, the PRC and the USA established diplomatic relations. Here is a chronicle of events from that time: On April 12, 1965, an American A-3 type aircraft appeared over Guangdong province, which was intercepted and shot down by Chinese fighters. A month later, on May 12, five US Air Force “Phantoms” intruded into PRC airspace over Yunnan province and, with air-to-air missiles, shot down a Chinese MiG-17 performing a training flight. The Chinese issued an official protest, but the Americans rejected it, stating that the “MiG” had been shot down over North Vietnam. The second half of 1967 was relatively rich in events. On one summer day, a flight of four Taiwanese F-104C fighters appeared in the area of Kinmen and Matsu islands. Twelve Chinese MiG-19s scrambled to intercept. In the ensuing battle, the “Starfighters” shot down two “MiGs.” No Taiwanese losses were reported. But after this battle, pilots from both sides began to avoid “sharp incidents” with each other.
On August 21, four US Navy A-6 “Intruder” attack aircraft were attacking a North Vietnamese target located 7 km from the Chinese border. One pair made a mistake and entered Chinese airspace. The Chinese were alert, and MiG-19s soon appeared, shooting down both “Intruders.” The crew of the lead aircraft managed to eject, but only one pilot survived and was captured. On September 17, the Chinese Air Force shot down another unmanned reconnaissance aircraft. In the same month, the sixth U-2 (the penultimate one lost over the PRC) was shot down over East China. In total, between 1964 and 1971, PLAAF and Navy fighters, mainly MiG-19s and MiG-21s, shot down 21 American aircraft of various types (A-3, A-6, F-104C, etc.). J-6 (MiG-19) is credited with 15 victories (seven of them naval), and the rest were achieved by J-7 (MiG-21). It must be said that a large number of propaganda and reconnaissance balloons were also launched towards the PRC, against which a serious struggle was waged; during the aforementioned period, Chinese fighters destroyed over three hundred such “balloons.”
It should be noted that the PLAAF, for its part, also paid attention to the Taiwanese sky, and in the late 1950s – early 1960s, their aircraft appeared over the island for reconnaissance purposes. Initially, they “got away with it.” However, the nationalists received “Nike-Ajax” type SAM systems from the USA, with which several reconnaissance aircraft were shot down (these were, evidently, the only instances of combat use of the mentioned SAM systems). After this, flights from the mainland to Taiwan ceased. In every war, in addition to those killed, wounded, and captured, there are also deserters and defectors. There were no shortages of them here either: from time to time, aircraft took off from both sides of the Taiwan Strait, flown by pilots to the camp of yesterday’s enemy. From the PRC to Taiwan and South Korea, fifteen pilots defected in twelve aircraft of various types: MiG-15, MiG-15UTI, MiG-17, MiG-19, Il-28, and An-2. Defecting pilots received large monetary rewards (from $800,000 to $3 million in gold) and a military rank one step higher than in the PLAAF. Captured aircraft were used for reconnaissance flights over PRC territory. Not for everyone, however, did the “escape” end successfully – on May 27, 1983, a MiG-19 attempting to defect to Taiwan was intercepted and shot down over the strait by its own fighters. The pilot died. From late April 1991, the island’s authorities, deciding to demonstrate “Taiwan’s aspiration for peaceful reunification with China,” somewhat changed their attitude towards defectors from the mainland: the payment of monetary rewards was abolished, and only assistance with employment was offered.
Defections also occurred in the opposite direction, from Taiwan to the PRC. Their total number is unknown, but, as can be assumed, it was also considerable. In any case, the Beijing Revolution Museum displays three aircraft with KMT Air Force insignia: a De Havilland DHC-V6 “Beaver,” a Lockheed T-33, and a North American F-86F “Sabre.” In addition, the press reported the defection in the mid-1970s of a Taiwanese pilot in an F-5 fighter. It must be said that this acquisition was very valuable for Chinese aviation specialists, as it familiarized them with modern Western technology and, in part, its techniques, suggesting ways to solve certain problems in the creation of their own aircraft and aviation equipment. As already mentioned, Chinese-American relations normalized in the early 1970s. Reports of US aviation violations of PRC airspace disappeared from the press, and U-2s were removed from Taiwan. Hostile military activity between the island and the mainland also ceased, which affected corresponding aviation activity. Currently, it is limited to daily combat training, routine patrol flights, and round-the-clock combat duty.